How humans became a global force, changing climate, biodiversity and geology
Definition of the Anthropocene
Term "Anthropocene" (from Greek. anthropos – “man”) refers to the proposed era in which human activity has a global impact geological and ecosystems processes. Although official approval from the International Commission on Stratigraphy is still awaited, the term is widely used both in scientific fields (geology, ecology, climate research) and in the public sphere. It suggests that the collective impact of humanity—fossil fuel burning, industrial agriculture, deforestation, mass species introductions, nuclear technologies, etc.—is leaving long-lasting traces on the Earth's layers and on life, likely comparable in scale to previous geological events.
Key markers of the Anthropocene:
- Global climate change, driven by greenhouse gas emissions.
- Altered biogeochemical cycles, especially the carbon and nitrogen cycles.
- Widespread biodiversity loss and biotic homogenization (mass extinctions, invasive species).
- Geological traces, such as plastic pollution or nuclear fallout layers.
In the wake of these changes, scientists are increasingly arguing that the Holocene epoch—which began about 11,700 years ago with the end of the last ice age—has transitioned into a qualitatively new “Anthropocene” stage, dominated by human forces.
2. Historical context: Human influence accumulates over millennia
2.1 Early agriculture and land use
Humanity's impact on the landscape began with Neolithic Revolution (~10,000–8,000 BC), when nomadic food gathering was replaced in many regions by agriculture and animal husbandry. Clearing forests for fields, irrigation projects, and the domestication of plants and animals reshaped ecosystems, promoting sediment erosion, and altering local soils. While these changes were significant, they were mostly local or regional in scale.
2.2 Industrial Revolution: Exponential Growth
From the end of the 18th century fossil fuel (coal, oil, natural gas) fueled industrial production, mechanized agriculture, and global transportation networks. This Industrial Revolution has accelerated greenhouse gas emissions, intensified resource extraction, and fueled global trade. Human populations have grown dramatically, as have demands for land, water, mineral resources, and energy, transforming Earth's change from a local or regional scale to a near-planetary one. [1].
2.3 The Great Acceleration (mid-20th century)
After World War II, it was called "The Great Acceleration" in socio-economic indicators (population, GDP, resource consumption, chemical production, etc.) and Earth system indicators (CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, loss of biodiversity, etc.) has increased dramatically. The human footprint in terms of infrastructure, technology and waste has expanded, and phenomena such as nuclear fallout (seen as a global geological marker), the sharp increase in the use of synthetic chemicals, and increased greenhouse gas concentrations.
3. Climate change: a key feature of the Anthropocene
3.1 Greenhouse gas emissions and warming
Anthropogenic Emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases have increased dramatically since the Industrial Revolution.Observations show:
- CO2 atmospheric concentrations have exceeded pre-industrial levels (280 parts per million) and today exceed 420 parts per million (and continue to rise).
- Global average surface temperature has risen by more than 1°C since the end of the 19th century, and this rise has accelerated further in the last 50 years.
- Arctic sea ice, glaciers and ice sheets noticeably melting, causing sea levels to rise [2], [3].
Such rapid warming is unprecedented at least in the last few thousand years and coincides with Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) conclusion that human activity is the main cause. The consequences of climate change—extreme weather, ocean acidification, changing precipitation patterns—are further altering terrestrial and marine ecosystems.
3.2 Feedback loops
Rising temperatures can cause positive feedback loops, for example, thawing permafrost releases methane, decreasing ice albedo further intensifies warming, and warming oceans lose their ability to absorb CO2These phenomena demonstrate how relatively small initial changes in the greenhouse effect caused by humans can lead to large and often unpredictable regional or global consequences. Models increasingly show that certain turning points (e.g., the drying up of the Amazon rainforest or the collapse of large ice sheets) can trigger abrupt changes in Earth system regimes.
4. Biodiversity crisis: mass extinction or biotic homogenization?
4.1 Species extinction and the sixth mass extinction
Many scientists consider the current decline in biodiversity a potential "the sixth mass extinction", the first caused by a single species. The global rate of species extinction is tens or hundreds of times higher than the natural background level. Destruction of ecosystems (deforestation, drainage of wetlands), overexploitation of resources (hunting, fishing), pollution and the introduction of invasive species are the main causes [4].
- IUCN Red List: about 1 million species are at risk of extinction in the coming decades.
- World vertebrate populations decreased by ~68% on average between 1970 and 2016 (WWF Living Planet Report).
- Coral reefs, crucial hotbeds of marine biodiversity, are experiencing decline due to ocean warming and acidification.
Although Earth has recovered from mass extinctions over long geological periods, the recovery period spans millions of years—a time span far longer than the scale of humanity.
4.2 Biotic homogenization and invasive species
Another important feature of the Anthropocene is biotic homogenization: humans transport species between continents (intentionally or unintentionally), and sometimes invasive species displace native flora and fauna. This results in a decline in regional endemism, and once-diverse ecosystems become increasingly similar, dominated by a few “cosmopolitan” species (e.g. rats, pigeons, invasive plants). Such homogenization can reduce evolutionary potential, degrade ecosystem services, and erode cultural connections to local biodiversity.
5. Geological traces of humanity
5.1 Technofossils: plastic, concrete and more
The concept of "technofossils"describes man-made materials that leave a lasting mark on stratigraphic layers. Examples:
- Plastic: Microparticles are found in oceans, beaches, lake sediments, even polar ice caps.Future geologists may discover clearly defined plastic horizons.
- Concrete and metal alloys: cities, roads, and reinforced structures will probably become anthropogenic "fossil" records.
- Electronic waste and high-tech ceramics: rare metals from electronics, nuclear waste from reactors, etc. can form recognizable layers or foci.
These materials show that the products of modern industry will remain in the Earth's crust and possibly obscure natural layers for future geologists. [5].
5.2 Nuclear markers
Atmospheric nuclear weapons tests reached its peak in the mid-20th century, spreading radioisotopes (e.g. 137Cs, 239Pu) around the world. These isotopic changes could become a precise “Golden Spike” marking the beginning of the Anthropocene in the mid-20th century. Traces of these nuclear isotopes in sediments, ice cores, or tree trunks highlight how a single technological event can create a global geochemical signature.
5.3 Land use changes
On almost every continent, arable land, urban development, and infrastructure are changing soils and topography. Sediment flows in rivers, deltas, and coastlines have increased dramatically due to deforestation and agriculture. Some call this “anthropogeomorphology", highlighting how human engineering, dams, and mining are outstripping many natural processes in shaping the Earth's surface. This is also reflected in the oxygen-depleted "death zones" in estuaries (such as the Gulf of Mexico) that form due to excess nutrients.
6. Discussions about the Anthropocene and its formal definition
6.1 Stratigraphic criteria
To declare a new epoch, geologists are looking for a clear global boundary layer—similar to the K–Pg boundary iridium anomaly. Proposed markers of the Anthropocene include:
- Radioactive nuclides peak due to nuclear testing around 1950-1960.
- Plastic layers in sediment cores since the mid-20th century.
- Carbon isotope changes due to the burning of fossil fuels.
Anthropocene Working Group The International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) is studying these signals in various possible reference sites (e.g., lake sediments or glaciers) in search of an official "Golden Spike."
6.2 Start date disputes
Some researchers suggest "early Anthropocene", which began thousands of years ago with agriculture. Others point to the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century or the “Great Acceleration” of the 1950s as more abrupt, clear markers. The ICS generally requires a globally synchronous indicator. For many, the peak of nuclear testing and rapid economic growth in the mid-20th century are the most appropriate, but final decisions have not yet been made. [6].
7. Challenges of the Anthropocene: Sustainability and Adaptation
7.1 Planetary boundaries
Scientists emphasize "planetary boundaries", related to processes such as climate regulation, biosphere integrity, and biogeochemical cycles. Exceeding these limits risks destabilizing Earth systems. The Anthropocene shows how close or even beyond these safe operating spaces we may be. Continued greenhouse gas emissions, excess nitrogen, ocean acidification, and deforestation threaten to push global systems into unpredictable states.
7.2 Socioeconomic inequality and environmental justice
The impacts of the Anthropocene are unevenly distributed.Heavily industrialized regions have historically contributed more to emissions, but climate change vulnerabilities (rising sea levels, droughts) often affect less developed countries the most. This leads to climate justice concept: the need to combine urgent emission reductions with equitable development. Addressing anthropogenic challenges requires cooperation across social and economic divides – an ethical challenge for global governance.
7.3 Mitigation measures and future directions
Possible ways to mitigate the threats posed by the Anthropocene could include:
- Energy decarbonization (renewable sources, nuclear energy, carbon capture).
- Sustainable agriculture, reducing deforestation, excessive use of chemicals and protecting biodiversity havens.
- Circular economy, which would significantly reduce the amount of plastic and toxic waste.
- Geoengineering proposals (solar radiation management, carbon dioxide removal), although they are controversial and difficult to predict.
Implementing these strategies requires political will, technological leaps, and fundamental cultural change. The question remains whether the global community will be able to transition to sustainable and long-term management of Earth systems in a timely manner.
8. Conclusion
Anthropocene reveals a fundamental reality: humanity has reached planetary scale From climate change to biodiversity loss, from plastic-laden oceans to radioisotope traces in geology, the scale of our species' collective activity now shapes the course of the Earth as profoundly as natural forces have done before. Whether or not this epoch is officially recognized, Anthropocene emphasizes our responsibility and vulnerability - reminding us that while we have enormous power to change nature, we can cause an ecological crisis if we abuse it.
In recognizing the Anthropocene, we recognize the delicate balance between technological progress and ecological disruption. The path forward requires scientific knowledge, ethical governance, and collaborative innovation on a global scale—a monumental challenge that could determine the future of humanity if we continue to exploit resources in a short-sighted manner. Recognizing that we are geological actors, we must rethink the relationship between humans and the Earth in a way that preserves the richness and diversity of life for future generations.
References and further reading
- Crutzen, PJ, & Stoermer, EF (2000). “The 'Anthropocene'.” Global Change Newsletter, 41, 17–18.
- IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Cambridge University Press.
- Steffen, W., et al. (2011). "The Anthropocene: conceptual and historical perspectives." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, 369, 842–867.
- Ceballos, G., Ehrlich, PR, & Dirzo, R. (2017). "Biological annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass extinction signaled by vertebrate population losses and declines." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114, E6089–E6096.
- Zalasiewicz, J., et al. (2014). "The technofossil record of humans." Anthropocene Review, 1, 34–43.
- Waters, C.N., et al. (2016). "The Anthropocene is functionally and stratigraphically distinct from the Holocene." Science, 351, aad2622.